The 1910s: Colonial Soldiers in WWI (Sebastien Basson, Helen Hassan)

ARTIFACT: War Diary of a Soldier of Gurkah Rifles Battalion

1914 WWI Diary of Gurkah Soldier of 1/9th Battelion, Gurkah Rifles  

1914 Diary Entry of a Gurkah Soldier; WWI "War Diary" from 1/9th Battelion Gurkah Rifles

SECONDARY ARTIFACT: Clippings from Frank Leslie's Weekly (October 1914)

Paper Clipping from Frank Leslie's Illustrative Weekly of 6th Cavalry Indian Soldiers 

Comparative Photo: Canadian colonial soldiers from same article (Frank Leslie's Illustrative Weekly)

CULTURAL/HISTORICAL CONTEXT 1910 – 1919

By the 1910s, Queen Victoria was dead and the Victorian Era had, at least technically, ended. Early 20th Century Britain sees the disordering of social and political systems; Victorian "mores, religion, and codes of behavior" are being challenged (i.e. Post-Impressionism).  

 IMPERIAL MILITARY STRATEGY & PROPAGANDA

            Between European and American colonies, approximately four-million colonial soldiers fought in WWI. In this way, WII creates some ripples in previous conceptions of race. For one thing, race used to be synonymous with nationality, but with different races all fighting for the same nation, the conception of race are obscured. Furthermore, colonial powers are more reliant than ever on their colonies, which further disrupts the power structure.

            The British strategized so their non-white soldiers would never fight against white Central Powers; Britain’s Indian soldiers only fought the Ottoman Empire. The British Empire wanted to keep the racial hierarchy intact to avoid possible rebellions after the war; they didn't want their colonies to "learn" that they could to raise their weapons to, and defeat, a white man. At the same time, British representations of colonial forces in the media as well as personal journals are often subscribing to, or at least perpetuating, a "together we stand" narrative, as if colonial soldiers eagerly and willingly came rushing to the Empire's side in its time of need. 

THE THEORY OF ‘MARTIAL RACES’

     Obviously, conceptions of race and racial difference are complicated in the 1910s. With the notion of  'race' and 'nationality' as interchangeable becoming increasingly difficult to uphold, ‘race’ is defined more and more in terms of biology, of physical attributes (a trend influenced and perpetuated by Darwinism). In the context of war, these ‘biological’ conceptions of race develop into what’s known as the theory of “martial races”. This theory was first introduced by the British in the wake of the Indian Rebellion back in the mid 1900s. Essentially, it's the theory that some people are inherently ‘war-like’, which is determined by physical attributes.  

           WWI fuels the proliferation of ‘martial race’ theory. In 1917, when the demand of WWI increases and the British were in desperate need of manpower, the definition of what, or who, qualified as a “martial race” was conveniently expanded, and enormous numbers of colonial soldiers were recruited - most of which came from Punjab, the North-West Provinces, and Nepal. By the end of WWI, the British Empire ends up recruiting 1.5 million Indian soldiers. 

GURKAHS: OBSCURING IMPERIAL BINARY OPPOSITIONS

            From these regions comes a particularly infamous "warrior race": the Gurkahs. Over 90,000 Gurkah warriors fought in the Indian Army, first organized and deployed to the Western Front in October 1914.

           The Gurkahs illustrate the paradox of colonial soldiers well. The first Victorian Cross was awarded to a Gurkah soldier in 1915; and “Queen Elizebeth’s Own Gurkah Association” is still an organization today. The racially "other" colonial soldiers present a development in the “civility vs. savagery” narrative; while they're still being brutally stereotyped as an animalistic, "war-like" race, they are now, at the same time, desperately needed and often admired for those very savage characteristics that have been assigned to them. They are even awarded for them with British titles and British tokens, which many objected to at the time. In this way WWI complicates conceptions of race and racial differentiation - because how can you admire these characteristics, and deeply rely on them, while simultaneously using them to distinguish yourself as superior? 

Victoria Cross awarded to Gurkah soldier
Kulbir Thapa in 1915; many British did not approve of
colonial soldiers being recipients of Victoria Crosses  

DRACULA

Many of the social anxieties posed in Dracula manifest in the reality of the 1910s. 

            -  The fear of invasion of the other into British homeland, or Dracula as a colonial                          subject and a strong villain, a valid threat to the Empire 
                      -> Britain's fear of non-white colonies "learning" to revolt against white men, the                              fear of colonies realizing the falsity of this racial hierarchy 

            -  The fear of the fragility, and even collapse, of the British Empire:

                      -> The threat of competition  = the early 20th Century saw other world powers, most notably Germany and the US, begin to catch up and surpass the British economy; jealous of the size of the British Empire, other European and American nations begin to expand and pose threatening competition to British Empire

                    ->During WWI,  Britain is stretched too thin and can’t afford to take care of the home-front, nevermind maintain its colonies 

HEART OF DARKNESS
- Kurtz’s assimilation to the native, takes on role both a prisoner and a god
           -> Represents the duality that Britain’s relationship with its colonies takes on during the                 1910s, where Kurtz/Britain simultaneously rules over the natives, but also eventually                 relies on them to survive 
           -> Disdain, then respect (foreshadows post WWI)

                                                              Works Cited

"Accessible Archives | Search." Accessible Archives | Search. Accessible Archives Inc., n.d. Web.

Bishop, Patrick. "The Call of the Empire, the Call of the War." The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 31 Dec. 2013. Web.

Bomani, Kathleen. "WW1's Untold Story: The Forgotten African Battlefields." CNN. Cable News Network, 8 Aug. 2014. Web.

Das, Santanu. "Experiences of Colonial Troops." British Library. British Library Board, 2011. Web.

Fogarty, Richard. "Race, Racism and Military Strategy." The British Library. British Library Board, n.d. Web.

Liebau, Heike: Martial Races, Theory of, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2015-08-19.

McClure, Miller. "Britain's Troops from Many Lands." Accessible Archives. Accessible Archives Inc, 15 Oct. 1914. Web. 23 Apr. 2016.

"1/9 Battalion Gurkha Rifles War Diary." Discovery. The National Archives, n.d. Web.

"6th Gurkhas." 6thgurkhas.org. 6th Gurkha Rifles Association, n.d. Web.

"Why the Indian Soldiers of WW1 Were Forgotten." BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation, 2          July 2015. Web.

Artifacts of Empire: Evolution of Imperialism

A BRIEF HISTORY

1890- The Alexandria Sporting Club is built; it is one of the oldest clubs in Egypt. 

1892- The Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria is created. 

1898-1902- The British began construction of the first dam across the Nile (This would evolve into the Aswan Dam)

1899-.Prince Muhammad ‘Ali Tawfiq is responsible for opening the Al-Manyal Palace Museum in 1899, which is set in a large garden of thirty feddans (approx 31 acres). 

1899- British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt. 

1899- The National Bank of Egypt introduces notes in denominations of 50 piasters, and one, five, ten, 50 and 100 Egyptian pounds. 

1900- On a visit to Britain, ‘Abbas Hilmi II tells the authorities that he thinks the British have carried out good work in Egypt. He declares himself ready to cooperate with British officials administering Egypt and Sudan. 

1904- France declared that Britain is the preeminent power within Egypt.

1905- The Egyptian Olympic Athletes Club is built in Alexandria. 

1908- Sir Eldon Gorst declared the Egyptian’s were unfit for self rule.

1894-1900- Qasim Amin publishes his book Les Egyptiens in French in 1894. In it he rejects the negative claims against the traditions of Oriental society made by Duke Drocom in his book, L’Egypte et les Egyptiens. In defense of Islam, Amin compares the rights of women according to Islam with those of civilized European women. In 1899, he then publishes The Emancipation of Women, which is severely criticized. In 1900, Amin refutes the arguments of his critics with The New Woman, a work that provides fresh fuel to his ardent battle for the emancipation of women.

tourism

 British Tourism

As a result of the exotification of Egypt and its artifacts - as well as a rumor the dry climate was good for sickness-, it became a popular sight for tourism

Popular tour guides and travel manuals made it easy for middle and high class British citizens to travel

They scaled the pyramids of Egypt, went to bazaars, and saw native peoples from afar on guided tours

Egyptians were able to get jobs as guides

Former President of Cornell College Andrew Dickson White went on such a journey

He described a bazaar he went to as “a chapter out of the "Arabian Nights,’” (Architourism)

At the end of his journey, though taking souvenirs had at that point been outlawed, he still managed to buy an ancient papyrus (the “Book of the Dead) off one “L. Phillips” and donated it to his university

Nature of Relationship

History- Sepoy Rebellion lead to diplomatic fears

Economics- Trade routes through Egypt were invaluable to Britain

Class- Upper class Egyptians benefited from British occupation significantly more

1908- Gorst tells Egyptians that they are unripe for self-government

Kubla Khan

“In Xanadu did Kubla Khan 

A stately pleasure-dome decree:

Where Alph, the sacred river, ran

Through caverns measureless to man

   Down to a sunless sea.

So twice five miles of fertile ground

With walls and towers were girdled round;

And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills,

Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree;

And here were forests ancient as the hills,

Enfolding sunny spots of greenery.”

Novels

Moonstone-Within the Moonstone, the exotic aspects of the jewel bring up language related to ethnic and imperialist significance, with the beauty of the jewel and its history as a essentially a war trophy, which is exactly what India and Egypt signified to the British. 

“Lord Bless us! It was a diamond! As large, or nearly, as a plover’s egg! The light that streamed from it was like the light of the harvest moon. When you looked down into the stone, you looked into a yellow deep that drew your eye into it so that you they saw nothing else. Its seemed unfathomable: this jewel, that you could hold between your finger and thumb, seemed unfathomable as the heavens themselves. We set it in the sun, and then shut the light out of the room, and it shone awfully out of the depths of its own brightness, with a moony gleam, in the dark.” (59) 

British Sentiment

"Nor was it only the life of old Egypt which interested me: the scenes in modern Eastern life also gave a needed change in my environment. At Cairo, in the bazaar, in contact with the daily life, which seemed like a chapter out of the "Arabian Nights," and also in the modern part of the city, in contact with the newer life of Egypt, among English and Egyptian functionaries, there was constant stimulus to fruitful trains of thought." (White 1905:433)

Questions

Do you think Britain’s taking of seemingly exotic objects from foreign places values these objects or merely exploits them as trinkets?

Egypt was a powerful empire, what about their history with Europe translates over into how they are perceived by British people during that period?

Why would Egypt be seen as a more attractive tourist destination than India?

Why wouldn't there be as much of a major rebellion against British rule in Egypt as there was in India?

Works cited

"Architourism." Architourism. Division of Rare Manuscript Collections, 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2016

Luscomb, Stephen. "British Empire: Africa: Egypt." British Empire: Africa: Egypt. Web. 15 Apr. 2016.

Stoker, Bram. Dracula. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann. Print.

Collins, Wilkie. The Moonstone. London: Penguin, 1999. Print.

Marshall, Lucille Sarah. "NASSR Graduate Student Caucus." NASSR Graduate Student Caucus. NASSR. Web. 15 Apr. 2016.

Zaki, A. H. "The English Councillors." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. Web. 15 Apr. 2016.

"European Tourists Visiting a Temple, in Egypt, by 1900. LL-35444A..." Getty Images. Web. 15 Apr. 2016.’

Artefact of Empire 1890s - Adrian, Kevin, and Shelbi

Chinese Foot Binding

• Started around beginning of the Song Dynasty up until 20th century. (960-1912)
• At one time it was just for wealthy but then became a norm among all social classes.
• Seen as a barbaric, radical practice by Westerners (mostly Christian missionaries)
• Girls started at a very young age
• In 1911 the new Republic of China government banned foot binding.
• Women were told to unwrap their feet lest they be fined, or worse.
• Today it is considered a form of child abuse and to this day a minority of elderly Chinese women are still living with the consequences of bound feet.

The Process

1. First the process started by binding the four toes under the foot (not including pinky)
2. Repeat step one until foot is at desired length 
3. Women did this for decades and decades, constantly breaking, setting and rebreaking their foot.

Social Darwinism

• Charles Darwin, an English naturalist and geologist contributed heavily to the theory of evolution by means of introducing the theory of Natural Selection, which was used by thinkers such as Herbert Spencer to describe the “survival of the fittest.”
• Some social Darwinists argue that their should be little government involvement in human competition, opposing actions such as regulating the economy and helping alleviate poverty. They instead push for a “laissez-faire” political and economic system which favors competition within society. 
• In a very basic sense, social Darwinism seems to justify imbalances between individuals, races, and nations because some are more “fit to survive.” 
• Social Darwinism was initially accepted because it answered a lot of questions that researchers had at the time. 
• During the 1890’s, another strain of social Darwinism was introduced that supported the expansion (Imperialism) overseas, which found support with many political scientists, sociologists, and military strategists. 
• In America, military strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan and historian John Fiske took ideas from social Darwinism to support expansion overseas and the establishment of a stronger military. 
• Social Darwinism can be found throughout big businesses and corporations. It can be seen in competition for jobs and resources. 
• People who were seen as the “fittest” were people who had the ability to get a job, maintain that job, and earn enough money to support their families . They had social and economic advantages that people of a “lower standing” did not. 
• This imbalance was supported by social Darwinism because people who were better suited for survival persevered. There was thus an incentive to work hard to overcome others in competition, and so become successful by making oneself the “fittest.”
• American Big Businesses were operating on a “laissez-faire” basis that allowed them to be in competition with each other without regulation or much control from the state.
• However, social Darwinism in effect opposes equality. 
• Introduces the idea that if you have more money or a bigger home or better living conditions, you are a “better” human than people of a lower class. 
• In a Darwinian society, you should be able to support yourself without help from anyone but your friends or family. 
• Current examples of things social Darwinism would oppose include welfare, charity, or support for homeless or elderly.

Social Darwinism and Foot Binding in China

• From a social Darwinian standpoint, foot binding in Chinese culture in the late nineteenth century put women at a disadvantage. 
• Not only were they suffering from the severe amount of pain they had to endure, but they were also made weaker. 
• Social Darwinists believed that these weak women would produce weak sons, making the country weaker as a whole, which was why China’s military had been incapable of fending off European imperialism.

Parallels between Foot Binding and Suttee

• “Though the number of Suttees in India is not so great as to preclude the possibility of the abolition of the practice, yet it is so considerable as to call aloud for Britain to stretch forth her hand, and save those who are ‘drawn unto death and ready to be slain.’” (India’s Cries to British Humanity p.9)
• “The interference of Government is well understood to be the Christian wish of humanity.” (Ibid. p.64)
• “Christian organizations had been key players in the diffusion of progressive social ideas, such as the anti-foot-binding movement, which began with a group of sixty Christian women in Xiamen in 1874 … In addition, these ideas were advocated by missionaries such as Timothy Richard, who considered that Christianity could lead to the equality of the sexes, and enthusiastically supported by Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei, who were avid readers of Richard’s works and personally acquainted with him.” (The Religious Question in Modern China p.70)

Suttee in Jane Eyre

• Present foremost in her relationship with St. John
• “as his wife - at his side always, and always restrained, and always checked - forced to keep the fire of my nature continually low, to compel it to burn inwardly and never utter a cry, though the imprisoned flame consumed vital after vital - this would be unendurable.” (Jane Eyre p.507)
• Jane can save herself; Indian (savage) women need to be saved

• Bertha’s death

Questions

• What does studying examples such as foot binding and suttee mean for other, still existent cultural practices that may be seen as human rights issues? Take for example female genital mutilation in parts of Africa. How should the world react to this issue? Should the world react?
• What does it mean that the plights of non-Western women are so often used to justify imperialism? For example, suttee, foot binding, hijab/burqa/niqab/etc.
• Can you think of examples where so-called human rights issues have been ‘resolved’ by people themselves within a specific society, rather than as a result of some form of Western intervention? Think particularly in relation to non-Western women.
• In what ways can mainstream feminism itself be an imperialist mechanism?

Sources

Brontë, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Ed. Richard Nemesvari. 1st edition. Peterborough, Ont. ; Orchard    

Park, NY: Broadview Press, 1999. Print.

“Foot Binding.” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 31 Mar. 2016. Wikipedia. Web. 6 Apr. 2016.

Goossaert, Vincent, and David A. Palmer. The Religious Question in Modern China. University of

Chicago Press, 2011. Print.

James Peggs. India’s Cries to British Humanity: Relative to Suttee, Infanticide, British ... N.p., 1830.

Internet Archive. Web. 6 Apr. 2016.

Shemo, Connie A. The Chinese Medical Ministries of Kang Cheng and Shi Meiyu, 1872-1937: On

a Cross-Cultural Frontier of Gender, Race, and Nation. Bethlehem: Lehigh University Press,

2011. Print.